The perennial human quest for true happiness finds profound articulation in the philosophies of Aristotle and, subsequently, Aquinas. Their enduring teachings offer a sophisticated framework for understanding genuine fulfillment beyond fleeting pleasures. This discourse will illuminate their distinct yet complementary perspectives on achieving a life of meaning.
Aristotle’s Eudaimonia Explained
Aristotle’s concept of Eudaimonia, often translated simply as ‘happiness’, represents a far richer and more complex understanding of human fulfillment than the fleeting pleasures we might associate with the term today. It is derived from the Greek words ‘eu’ (good) and ‘daimon’ (spirit or deity), suggesting a state of being blessed or guided by a good spirit; essentially, living well and doing well. For Aristotle, particularly in his seminal work, the Nicomachean Ethics, Eudaimonia is not merely a subjective feeling but an objective state, the highest human good, and the ultimate telos (end goal or purpose) toward which all human actions should aim. It signifies human flourishing in its most complete sense.
The Function Argument (Ergon) and Virtue (Arete)
Central to understanding Eudaimonia is Aristotle’s function argument, or the concept of ergon. He posited that everything has a characteristic function or activity. A knife’s ergon is to cut; its excellence (arete) lies in cutting well. What, then, is the unique function of a human being? Aristotle argues it is not mere life (as plants have this) nor perception (as animals have this), but the activity of the soul in accordance with reason, or at least not without reason (logos). Therefore, the human good, Eudaimonia, turns out to be the activity of the rational soul exhibiting excellence or virtue (arete). Living virtuously is living well for humans. It’s not about feeling good momentarily, but about being good and doing good consistently throughout a complete life.
Virtue as the Golden Mean and the Role of Phronesis
This excellence, or arete, is not a single entity but encompasses a range of moral and intellectual virtues. Aristotle identified approximately 12 moral virtues, each representing a ‘Golden Mean’ between two extremes of vice – one of excess and one of deficiency. For instance, courage is the mean between rashness (excess) and cowardice (deficiency). Generosity lies between wastefulness and stinginess. Finding this mean isn’t a simple mathematical calculation; it requires phronesis, or practical wisdom. Phronesis is the intellectual virtue that enables one to deliberate correctly about what is good and expedient for oneself in the pursuit of Eudaimonia. It allows individuals to perceive the right course of action in specific situations, hitting the virtuous mean relative to them. It’s a skill developed through experience and habituation – we become virtuous by repeatedly performing virtuous actions, much like a musician becomes skilled by practicing consistently.
Eudaimonia vs. Hedonism and External Goods
It’s crucial to distinguish Eudaimonia from hedonism. While pleasure (hedone) often accompanies virtuous activity, it is not the goal itself. Aristotle saw pleasure as a ‘supervenient end’, something that naturally completes an activity performed well, like the bloom on the cheek of youth. Seeking pleasure for its own sake is misguided and unlikely to lead to true flourishing. Similarly, while external goods like wealth, health, friends, and political power can contribute to Eudaimonia – it’s admittedly harder to flourish while suffering extreme deprivation – they are not sufficient on their own. They are preferred conditions or resources that facilitate virtuous activity, but the core of Eudaimonia remains the activity of the rational soul in accordance with virtue. This focus on activity and character, developed over a lifetime, provides a robust framework for understanding what constitutes a truly fulfilling human existence. This isn’t just about temporary highs; it’s about achieving the pinnacle of human potential.
Aquinas on Beatitude
Building upon the Aristotelian framework, St. Thomas Aquinas significantly deepens and transforms the understanding of ultimate human fulfillment, introducing the concept of Beatitude. While Aristotle’s Eudaimonia represents the highest form of happiness achievable through virtuous activity within the natural, earthly realm, Aquinas posits that true and perfect happiness transcends this terrestrial existence. It is essential to understand that Aquinas does not wholly reject Aristotle’s view; rather, he incorporates it as a form of imperfect beatitude while pointing towards a perfect beatitude found only in God. This distinction is absolutely central to Thomistic ethics and anthropology.
Limitations of Created Goods
Aquinas meticulously argues in his seminal work, the Summa Theologiae (specifically in the Prima Secundae Partis, Questions 1-5), that the ultimate end, the telos, for human beings cannot be found in any created good. He systematically examines potential candidates for perfect happiness – wealth, honor, fame, power, bodily goods, pleasure, and even goods of the soul like virtue or knowledge acquired through reason alone – and finds them all wanting. Why?! Because the human intellect possesses a capacity for understanding universal truth, and the human will possesses an infinite desire for the universal good. No finite, created object or state can fully satisfy these innate, God-given capacities. Wealth is merely instrumental; honor depends on others; power is precarious; pleasure is fleeting and often tied to base appetites; even philosophical contemplation, while noble, remains incomplete as it deals with created realities and abstract truths, not the ultimate source of Truth itself. According to Aquinas’s analysis presented in ST I-II, Q.2, these earthly goods fail fundamentally because they are limited, contingent, and external to the true source of fulfillment.
Perfect Beatitude: The Beatific Vision
Therefore, Aquinas contends that Perfect Beatitude consists in the direct, intellectual vision of the Divine Essence – the visio Dei or Beatific Vision. This is not merely knowing about God through faith or reason, but a direct, intuitive, and unmediated apprehension of God Himself, who is Infinite Truth and Infinite Goodness. In this state, the human intellect finds its ultimate object, achieving complete satisfaction in understanding the First Cause and ultimate reality. Simultaneously, the human will finds perfect rest and joy in loving God, the Supreme Good, directly apprehended by the intellect. This union with God represents the complete actualization of human potential, fulfilling the deepest longings of the soul in a way no earthly experience possibly could. This is detailed profoundly in ST I-II, Q.3, Art. 8.
The Necessity of Grace
Crucially, Aquinas emphasizes that this Perfect Beatitude is a supernatural end. It lies beyond the natural capacities of human beings to achieve through their own efforts alone. While living a virtuous life (encompassing both the cardinal virtues – prudence, justice, fortitude, temperance – and the intellectual virtues) contributes to imperfect beatitude on earth and disposes the soul towards its supernatural end, it cannot, by itself, attain the Beatific Vision. Attaining this ultimate state requires God’s grace – a freely given, unmerited divine assistance that elevates human nature, enabling it to participate in the divine life and see God face-to-face. The theological virtues of faith, hope, and charity, infused by grace, are specifically ordered toward this supernatural end, directing the intellect and will towards God even in this life. Faith allows belief in truths beyond reason’s grasp, hope directs the will towards attaining eternal life with God, and charity is the love of God above all things, uniting the soul to Him. Think about that profound difference!
Two Tiers of Happiness: Imperfect and Perfect
Thus, Aquinas presents a two-tiered structure of happiness. Imperfect Beatitude is achievable in this life through virtuous activity, particularly philosophical contemplation, mirroring Aristotle’s Eudaimonia. It provides a measure of fulfillment and is good in itself, representing the perfection of human nature within the natural order. However, it is inherently incomplete, subject to the vicissitudes of fortune, and ultimately preparatory. Perfect Beatitude, the true and final end, is the supernatural vision of God in the afterlife, granted through divine grace. It offers complete, unending fulfillment of the intellect and will, representing the ultimate purpose for which humans were created. This eschatological perspective fundamentally reorients the pursuit of happiness from a solely immanent, earthly goal to a transcendent, divine one. Aquinas’s synthesis integrates Aristotelian ethics into a broader Christian theological framework, providing a remarkably comprehensive vision of human flourishing, both in its earthly manifestation and its ultimate, heavenly consummation. This vision has profoundly shaped Western thought on the nature of happiness for centuries.
The Role of Virtue
Both Aristotle and St. Thomas Aquinas identify virtue as absolutely fundamental to the attainment of genuine happiness, though their conceptions diverge slightly in scope and ultimate end. For Aristotle, virtue, or aretē (excellence), is not merely a prerequisite for Eudaimonia but is constitutive of it. Happiness, in the Aristotelian framework, is virtuous activity of the soul in accordance with reason. This is not a passive state but an active engagement with life, guided by excellences of character and intellect.
Aristotle’s Conception of Virtue
Aristotle meticulously categorizes virtues into two primary types: moral virtues and intellectual virtues. Moral virtues, such as courage, temperance, and justice, are cultivated through habituation (ethos). They represent a mean state between two extremes of vice – deficiency and excess. For instance, courage is the mean between cowardice (deficiency) and rashness (excess). Finding this mean is not a simple mathematical calculation; rather, it requires practical wisdom, phronesis, which is the key intellectual virtue concerned with action. Phronesis enables individuals to discern the right course of action in specific situations, effectively guiding the application of moral virtues. Without phronesis, good intentions can falter; without moral virtue, intellectual prowess lacks proper direction. The consistent exercise of these virtues, guided by reason, constitutes the flourishing life unique to human beings. Indeed, achieving Eudaimonia necessitates the cultivation and active expression of these excellences over a complete lifetime. It is a demanding, yet ultimately rewarding, endeavor central to the human telos (purpose).
Aquinas and the Cardinal Virtues
St. Thomas Aquinas, deeply influenced by Aristotle, incorporates this understanding of virtue but situates it within a broader theological context aimed at Beatitudo (Beatitude), the ultimate supernatural end of union with God. Aquinas accepts the Aristotelian framework of acquired virtues, later termed the Cardinal Virtues: Prudence (prudentia, analogous to phronesis), Justice (justitia), Fortitude (fortitudo), and Temperance (temperantia). These cardinal virtues perfect human nature and are essential for achieving natural happiness, the highest form of fulfillment possible through human effort alone. They regulate our passions, guide our actions towards the good, and order our relationships with others. However, Aquinas posits that human nature, even perfected by these acquired virtues, is insufficient to reach the supernatural destiny intended by God.
The Theological Virtues in Aquinas
Therefore, Aquinas introduces the Theological Virtues: Faith (fides), Hope (spes), and Charity (caritas). Unlike the cardinal virtues acquired through human effort and habituation, the theological virtues are directly infused into the soul by divine grace. Faith illuminates the intellect to accept truths beyond the grasp of reason, specifically revealed doctrines concerning God and salvation. Hope directs the will towards eternal life as attainable, trusting in God’s power and mercy. Charity, considered the greatest of the theological virtues (1 Corinthians 13:13), perfects the will by enabling love for God above all things and love for neighbor as oneself for God’s sake. These infused virtues elevate human nature, orienting the individual towards the ultimate end of Beatitudo—an end utterly transcending the natural capacities Aristotle described. While the cardinal virtues manage the aspects of a good earthly life, the theological virtues connect the soul directly to God, making participation in the divine life possible. Thus, for Aquinas, complete and ultimate happiness necessitates not only the perfection of natural human capacities through the cardinal virtues but also the elevation and transformation of the soul through the infused theological virtues, gifted by grace. Virtue remains indispensable, but its scope expands significantly towards a divine horizon.
Seeking Lasting Fulfillment
The human quest for fulfillment, a journey as old as consciousness itself, often navigates a complex terrain, distinguishing ephemeral gratification from enduring contentment. It is understood that superficial pleasures, while momentarily alluring, typically fail to provide substantive, long-term satisfaction; they are, by their very nature, transient and subject to the law of diminishing returns. Indeed, empirical studies within the domain of positive psychology, such as those investigating the “hedonic treadmill” phenomenon (first proposed by Brickman and Campbell in 1971), robustly demonstrate that significant life events, both positive (e.g., substantial financial windfalls, career promotions) and negative, often result in individuals reverting to a baseline level of happiness within a surprisingly short period, often estimated between 3 to 6 months for major events. This well-documented psychological principle underscores the fundamental inadequacy of purely external pursuits or sensory indulgences for achieving lasting well-being, doesn’t it?! The allure of immediate satisfaction, while potent, frequently masks a deeper yearning for something more profound and stable.
Aristotle’s Perspective: Eudaimonia
Aristotle, in his seminal work, the *Nicomachean Ethics* (circa 340 BCE), posits that Eudaimonia, a term often translated as ‘flourishing,’ ‘living well,’ or ‘human thriving,’ constitutes the highest human good, the ultimate *telos* or end towards which all human actions aim. This is critically not a passive state of being, such as feeling pleased, but rather an *energeia psychēs kat’ aretēn* – an activity of the soul in accordance with virtue, and if there are multiple virtues, in accordance with the best and most complete virtue over a complete life. For Aristotle, the systematic cultivation and active exercise of intellectual virtues, particularly *sophia* (theoretical wisdom) and *phronesis* (practical wisdom), alongside moral virtues like courage, temperance, and justice, are paramount. He meticulously argued that a life dedicated to virtuous activity, culminating in the highest human activity of *theōria* (contemplation or theoretical study), represents the most complete, self-sufficient, and therefore most fulfilling form of human existence. This active engagement with one’s highest rational capacities is what truly constitutes a fulfilled life, a stark and significant contrast to mere amusement or the passive reception of pleasant sensations, wouldn’t you agree? The rigor involved in developing an Aristotelian virtuous character is substantial, requiring consistent habituation and rational deliberation.
Aquinas’s Perspective: Beatitude
Building upon this rich classical foundation, and integrating it with Christian theology, St. Thomas Aquinas, in his monumental *Summa Theologica* (completed circa 1273 CE), presents the concept of Beatitude (*beatitudo*) as the ultimate end and perfect happiness for humankind. Aquinas thoughtfully distinguishes between imperfect beatitude, which is attainable, albeit incompletely, in this earthly life through virtuous living aided by divine grace and the exercise of reason, and perfect beatitude. This latter, perfect happiness, consists in the direct, unmediated vision of God (the *visio Dei*) in the afterlife. This perfect beatitude is inherently supernatural and entirely transcends unaided human capacities, yet our earthly actions, when guided by both natural and divine law and infused with theological virtues (faith, hope, and charity), serve to orient us towards this ultimate, unsurpassable fulfillment. Aquinas posits, with compelling logical force, that the human intellect’s innate and insatiable desire for truth, and the will’s correlative desire for the good, can find their ultimate and complete satisfaction only in knowing and loving the First Cause, the ultimate truth and goodness, which is God Himself. This is quite a profound and far-reaching assertion, isn’t it?! It is noteworthy that approximately 70% of Aquinas’s discussion on happiness in the *Summa Theologica* (Prima Secundae Partis, Questions 1-5) meticulously focuses on demonstrating what *cannot* constitute perfect happiness (e.g., wealth, honor, power, pleasure, or even created goods) before definitively concluding with the Beatific Vision as the sole source of complete and lasting fulfillment.
The Path to Authentic Fulfillment
Therefore, the authentic seeking of lasting fulfillment involves a conscious and deliberate turn from the allure of the transient and the superficial towards the embrace of the enduring and the substantive. It necessitates a profound understanding that true, deep-seated happiness is intrinsically and inextricably linked to purpose, the consistent practice of virtue, and often, an acknowledgement of a transcendent dimension to human existence. Both these colossal figures of Western thought, Aristotle and Aquinas, despite their differing ultimate horizons—Aristotle’s more immanent, world-focused Eudaimonia and Aquinas’s unequivocally transcendent Beatitude—remarkably converge on the critical and indispensable role of virtue and reason in the pursuit of a meaningful life. The pursuit itself involves a disciplined cultivation of character, often against innate proclivities towards ease or vice; it demands a steadfast commitment to intellectual growth and critical reflection, and an ongoing alignment of one’s actions with rationally discerned and morally sound goods. It is a journey that demands far more than passive reception or wishful thinking; it requires active, volitional participation and a persistent, unwavering orientation towards what is genuinely good, true, and beautiful. This arduous endeavor, while undoubtedly challenging in a world saturated with distractions and quick fixes, promises a depth of satisfaction and a resilient sense of well-being that fleeting pleasures can never hope to offer. It’s a lifelong commitment, really, to becoming the best version of oneself! The pervasive societal emphasis on instant gratification, often amplified by digital media platforms where average daily engagement can exceed 2.5 to 3 hours for significant demographics (a figure that varies by age group and region but indicates substantial investment of time), presents a considerable and often seductive distraction from this deeper, more arduous, yet ultimately more rewarding path. Yet, it is precisely this disciplined path, paved with virtuous action and guided by reason, that leads to a fulfillment that is both profoundly human and, in its highest aspiration, touches upon the divine, thereby becoming truly lasting.
In synthesizing the profound insights of Aristotle and Aquinas, it becomes evident that true happiness is not a fleeting emotion but a state of flourishing deeply intertwined with virtuous living. Both philosophers, though centuries apart, guide us towards understanding that eudaimonia and beatitude are achieved through deliberate cultivation of character and reason. This ancient wisdom powerfully illuminates the path to a fulfillment that transcends the superficial, urging a considered pursuit of lasting contentment.